Chemical and electrochemical synthesis and deposition of chalcogenides from room temperature ionic liquids

ABSTRACT

Room temperature electrochemical methods to deposit thin films of chalcogenide glasses.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional PatentApplication Ser. No. 61/537,366, filed on Sep. 21, 2011, the entiredisclosure of which is hereby incorporated by reference.

BACKGROUND

Chalcogenide glasses and films are promising materials for use as solidelectrolytes. These materials are used for different applications, suchas optical and photonic materials (laser, fiber optics, and opticallenses for infrared transmission), rewritable optical discs, andnon-volatile memory devices such as phase change memory. Currently theyhave been used in next generation non-volatile solid state memory suchas electrochemical metallization memory cells (ECM) and conductivebridging random access memory (CBRAM). CBRAM works by sandwiching ametal chalcogenide solid electrolyte between an inert cathode andsacrificial anode. When a potential is applied, metal ions from thesacrificial anode migrate into the solid electrolyte and form a“conductive” bridge to the other electrode creating an electrical short.The resultant change in resistance can be a basis for a memory element.Several metal chalcogenides have shown promise as a solid stateelectrolyte in this application including, germanium chalcogenides(sulfide, selenide, and telluride compounds), arsenic chalcogenidescompounds (sulfide, selenide, and telluride compounds), and molybdenumchalcogenides (sulfide, selenide, and telluride compounds). Thesecompounds can be doped with several ions including Ag⁺, Li⁺, and Cu⁺².These materials have been shown to better survive the high temperatureof back-end-of-line processing in integrated circuit manufacture. Thematerials in various forms also have uses in many other applicationsincluding inorganic photoresists, photonic devices, fiber optics,chemical sensors, optoelectronics and waveguides. The glasses and filmsmay be useful in smart cards, integrated circuits, inorganicphotoresists, transistors, field emitters, solid state lithium ionbatteries. The glasses and films may also be useful in medicalapplications, photocatalytic applications, hydrogen evolution, and valueadded fuel generation.

There are several methods available for the preparation of chalcogenideglasses and films, particularly germanium sulfide glasses and molybdenumsulfide glasses, including sol-gel synthesis, chemical vapor deposition,and laser assisted chemical vapor deposition. Metal ion doping onchalcogenide glasses can be performed by conventional methods such aschemical vapor deposition, photo doping, and electrochemical methods.These methods have limitations because they require the use of hightemperature, corrosive gases, or long processing time frames. Germaniumsulfide and molybdenum sulfide formation by sol-gel synthesis involvesthe use of H₂S gas with specialized equipment (stainless steel highpressure reactors) to keep the sample out of contact with the air andthe reaction can take place for several days to month. Chemical vapordeposition involves the use of specialized equipment at hightemperatures, around 400° C. to 700° C., as well as H₂S gas. Depositionduring CVD occurs at a rate of about 12 μm/hr. Furthermore, inconventional silver doping techniques, it is difficult to estimate theconcentration of Ag⁺ doped on the system.

Other techniques such as evaporation, sputtering, and ablation ingeneral suffer from difficulties associated with the incorporation ofimpurities or non-stoichiometry, which degrade the properties of thechalcogenide glass. The synthesized products are not pure or uniform anddepend upon the targets materials used in the synthesis. These optionsalso have a limit to the speed, cost, and scale at which they can beproduced.

SUMMARY

The present disclosure generally relates to methods for preparingchalcogenide glasses and films. More particularly, the presentdisclosure relates to methods for preparing chalcogenide glasses andfilms using room temperature ionic liquids.

In one embodiment, the present disclosure provides a method forfabricating a chalcogenide glass or film comprising: providing asolution comprising a room temperature ionic liquid, a metal precursor,and a chalcogenide precursor; providing a substrate; and applying thesolution onto the substrate by a deposition process.

In another embodiment, the present disclosure provides a method forfabricating a chalcogenide glass or film comprising: providing asolution comprising a room temperature ionic liquid, a molybdenumprecursor, and a chalcogenide precursor; providing a substrate; andapplying the solution onto the substrate by a deposition process.

In another embodiment, the present disclosure provides a method forfabricating a molybdenum chalcogenide glass or film comprising:providing a solution comprising a PP₁₃-TFSI, molybdenum glycolate, and1,4-butanedithiol; providing a substrate; and applying the solution ontothe substrate by a deposition process.

The features and advantages of the present invention will be readilyapparent to those skilled in the art. While numerous changes may be madeby those skilled in the art, such changes are within the spirit of theinvention.

DRAWINGS

FIGS. 1A-1C are charts depicting the deposition of Ge film over GCworking electrode.

FIG. 1D is a chart depicting a Cottrell plot.

FIG. 2 is a chart depicting the electrochemical deposition of Ge ondifferent working electrodes.

FIG. 3 is an SEM-EDS analysis of GeS_(x) film deposited on GC.

FIG. 4 is a chart depicting a Raman characterization of electrodepositedamorphous Ge, GeS_(x) and Ag doped GeS_(x) films.

FIG. 5 is a chart depicting a Raman spectrum of white powder obtainedduring the electrodeposition of GeS_(x) in the ionic liquid.

FIG. 6 is a chart depicting XRD analyses.

FIG. 7 is a chart depicting XPS analyses.

FIG. 8A is a chart depicting a cyclic voltammogram.

FIG. 8B is a chart depicting the absorbance of ITO.

FIG. 8C is a chart depicting the absorbance of GeS_(x).

FIG. 9 is a chart depicting an XPS analyses.

FIG. 10 is a chart depicting a Raman characterization ofelectrodeposited MoS_(x) films.

FIG. 11 an SEM analysis of MoS_(x) film deposited on GC.

FIG. 12 an SEM-EDS analysis of MoS_(x) film deposited on GC.

FIG. 13 is a chart depicting Hydrogen Evolution Reaction activity ofMoS₂.

While the present disclosure is susceptible to various modifications andalternative forms, specific example embodiments have been shown in thefigures and are described in more detail below. It should be understood,however, that the description of specific example embodiments is notintended to limit the invention to the particular forms disclosed, buton the contrary, this disclosure is to cover all modifications andequivalents as illustrated, in part, by the appended claims.

DESCRIPTION

The present disclosure generally relates to methods for preparingchalcogenide glasses and films. More particularly, the presentdisclosure relates to methods for preparing chalcogenide glasses andfilms using room temperature ionic liquids.

In certain embodiments, this present disclosure describes roomtemperature chemical and electrochemical synthetic methods for thepreparation of chalcogenide glasses or films, especially germaniumsulfide glasses and molybdenum sulfide glasses, using room temperatureionic liquids (RTILs). It has been shown that chemical andelectrochemical reduction of soluble precursors produces chalcogenideglasses and films of varied structure and composition depending upondeposition conditions. These compounds can be doped using this methodand others with several ions including Ag⁺, Li⁺, and Cu⁺².

The room temperature deposition methodology provides several advantagesover other more high-energy-consuming, capital-intensive synthetictechniques such as chemical vapor deposition and vacuum sputteringincluding: (1) the ability to precisely control film thickness,uniformity, and deposition rate; (2) the ability to carefully regulatereaction parameters such as solution concentration, bath composition,pH, and temperature; and (3) the ability to form thin-film depositionson surfaces of complicated shape and morphology. Furthermore, the use ofRTILs for chemical and electrochemical deposition provides a uniquesolvent environment for carrying out reduction of the precursors as theyhave negligible vapor pressure, high thermal stability, a wideelectrochemical window of stability (>3V), high ionic conductivity, andvirtually limitless chemical tenability. There are an abundance ofdeposition precursors that have a large solubility in many RTILs, andthis solubility can be tuned, for instance, by adjusting the chemicalfunctionality of the anion or cation component, such as by usingcomplexing or coordinating groups. The use of RTILs as solvent, solventand co-reactant and/or promoter offers intriguing possibilities toachieve more selective and efficient deposition.

Other advantages of the methods described herein are that they avoid theuse of high temperature and energy coating techniques, the use ofcorrosive gas such as H₂S, and long deposition times. For example, themethods described herein may be performed without the use of corrosivegases and at temperatures below 100° C. In certain embodiments, themethod described herein may be performed at room temperature andatmospheric pressure. The techniques described herein also have theability to control the stoichiometry of the metal precursor,chalcogenide precursor, and metal dopant composition. By changing thecomposition in the reaction medium, the property of the materialssynthesized can be tuned.

In one embodiment, the present disclosure provides a method forfabricating a chalcogenide glass or film comprising: providing asolution comprising a room temperature ionic liquid; a metal precursor;and a chalcogenide precursor; providing a substrate; and applying thesolution onto the substrate by a deposition process.

The room temperature ionic liquid may be any ionic compound which is aliquid at room temperature conditions (e.g. 25° C. and 1 atm). Incertain embodiments, the room temperature ionic liquid may comprise abulky and asymmetric organic cation and an anion. Suitable examples ofcations may include 1-alkyl-3-methylimidazolium, 1-alkylpyridinium,N-methyl-N-alkylpyrrolidinium, and ammonium ions. Suitable examples ofanions may include halides, inorganic anions such as tetrafluoroborate,hexafluorophosphate, large organic anions such as bistriflimide,triflate, or tosylate, and non-halogenated organic anions such asformate, alkylsulfate, alkylphosphate, or glycolate. A specific exampleof a room temperature ionic liquids may include a room temperature ionicliquid (PP₁₃-TSFI) comprising an N-methyl-N-propylpiperidinium cation(PP₁₃ ⁺) and a bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide anion (TFSI⁻). Otherexamples of room temperature ionic liquids may include PP₁₃-PF₆ andPP₁₃-BF₄. In certain embodiments, the room temperature ionic liquid maybe any room temperature ionic liquid that is capable of dissolving theprecursors without reacting the deposited chalcogenide glass or film.

The metal precursor may be any metal precursor that comprises aninorganic metal complex or metal halide and is capable of forming achalcogenide glass when reacted with a chalcogenide precursor. Incertain embodiments, the metal precursor may be a transition metalprecursor. Examples of suitable metal precursors may include germaniumprecursors for germanium chalcogenide synthesis, tungsten precursors fortungsten chalcogenide synthesis, niobium precursors for niobiumchalcogenide synthesis, cadmium precursors for cadmium chalcogenidesynthesis, and molybdenum precursors for molybdenum chalcogenidesynthesis. Suitable examples of germanium precursors include germanium(IV) bromide, germanium (IV) chloride, germanium (IV) ethoxide,germanium (IV) fluoride, germanium (IV) iodide, germanium (IV)isopropoxide, germanium (IV) methoxide, tetramethylgermanium,tributylgermanium hydride, germanium n-butoxide, di-n-butylgermaniumdichloride, diethylgermanium dichloride, dimethylgermanium dichloride,germanium (II) bromide, germanium (II) chloride dioxane complex, andgermanium (II) iodide. Suitable examples of telluride precursors includetellurium (IV) tetraiodide, tellurium (IV) tetrachloride, tellurium (IV)tetrabromide, and tellurium (IV) isopropoxide. Suitable examples ofmolybdenum precursors include molybdenum glycolate.

In certain embodiments, the metal precursor may be soluble in the roomtemperature ionic liquid. The metal precursor may be present in thesolution in an amount in the range of 0.01M to 1M. In certainembodiments, the metal precursors may be present in the solution in theamount in the range of 0.05M to 0.25M. In certain embodiments, the metalprecursor may be present in an equimolar concentration of thechalcogenide precursor.

The chalcogenide precursor may be any chalcogenide precursor thatcomprises a chalcogenide and is capable of forming a chalcogenide glasswhen reacted with a metal precursor. Examples of chalcogenide precursorsmay include sulfur compounds such as benzene-1,2-dithiol,benzene-1,3-dithiol, biphenyl-4,4′-dithiol, p-terphenyl-4,4″-dithiol,toluene-3,4-dithiol, 1,3-butanedithiol, 1,4-butanedithiol,2,3-butanedithiol, 1,4-butanedithiol diacetate, 1,16-hexadecanedithiol,1,4-benzenedimethanethiol, 1,2-ethanedithiol, 1,3-propanedithiol,1,5-pentanedithiol, 1,6-hexandithiol, 1,8-octanedithiol,1,8-octanedithiol diacetate, and 1,9-nonanedithiol. Examples of seleniumcompounds include selenium halides (SeX_(n) where X=F, Cl, Br and n=1,2, 3, 4), diselenium dihalides (Se₂X₂ where X=F, Cl, Br), diselenols(RSeH), phenylselenols, selenourea, and diselenides (R—Se—Se—R) such asdimethyl diselenide and diphenyl diselenide. In certain embodiments, thechalcogenide precursor may be soluble in the room temperature ionicliquid. The chalcogenide precursor may be present in the solution in anamount in the range of 0.01M to 1M. In certain embodiments, thechalcogenide precursor may be present in the solution in the amount inthe range of 0.05M to 1M. In certain embodiments, the chalcogenideprecursor may be present in an equimolar concentration of the metalprecursor.

In certain embodiments, the substrate may comprise any substrate with asurface on which a chalcogenide glass or film may be deposited. Incertain embodiments, the substrate may comprise a working electrode (ora component of a working electrode) found in a three electrode cellassembly. Examples of suitable substrates may include silicon nitride,molybdenum, or tungsten. In other embodiments, the substrate may begraphite, graphene, glassy carbon, pyrolized photoresist carbon films(PPF), indium doped tin oxide (ITO) glass sheets, stainless steelsheets, or silicon wafers coated with one side coated with a metal suchas gold for connectivity.

In certain embodiments, the solution may be applied to the substrateusing a deposition process. In certain embodiments, a three electrodecell assembly may be used during the deposition process. The threeelectrode cell may comprise a working electrode, a counter electrode,and a quasi-reference electrode (QRE). Suitable examples of workingelectrodes includes glassy carbon, indium coated tin oxide glass sheets,stainless steel sheets, or silicon wafers coated with one side coatedwith a metal such as gold for connectivity. Suitable examples of counterelectrodes include Pt or graphite. Suitable examples of quasi-referenceelectrodes include Ag or Pt wire.

In certain embodiments, the substrate may be submerged into a threeelectrode cell assembly containing the solution. Direct current may thenbe applied to the electrodes in a range of from 0 to −3 volts, resultingin the deposition of the chalcogenide glass on the substrate. To varythe thickness of the film deposition time at constant potential may bevaried from seconds to hours and/or the concentrations of metalprecursor (0.01M to 1M) and chalcogenide precursor (0.01M to 1M) presentin the ionic liquid may be varied. The temperature can also effect thefilm growth which can be varied from 20° C. to 150° C. The synthesizedchalcogenide glass may then be washed with organic solvents such asacetone and stored in a dessicator.

In certain embodiments, the chalcogenide glass or film may be doped witha metal and/or metal ions such as Ag⁺, Cu⁺, Cu⁺², Zn⁺², or Li⁺. Incertain embodiments, a chalcogenide glass or film may be placed in athree electrode cell described above containing a solution comprising aroom temperature ionic liquid and the metal ion. The metal ion may bepresent in the solution in an amount in the range of from 0.01M to 1M.Direct voltage may then be applied to the electrodes in a range from 1to −1.5 volts, resulting in the doping of the chalcogenide glass withthe metal ion.

In an alternative embodiment, a doped chalcogenide glass or film may besynthesized by adding a metal ion to the solution comprising the roomtemperature ionic liquid, the metal precursor, and the chalcogenideprecursor and placing the solution in a three electrode cell. A dopedchalcogenide glass or film may then become deposited on the substratewhen current is applied to the electrodes.

In certain embodiments, the deposition may need to be performed by usinga dry box, as certain germanium precursors may require a moisture freeenvironment. However, once the germanium precursors are dissolved in theionic liquid, the resulting mixture is stable enough to perform thedeposition under standard laboratory conditions.

To facilitate a better understanding of the present disclosure, thefollowing examples of certain aspects of some embodiments are given. Inno way should the following examples be read to limit, or define, theentire scope of the disclosure.

EXAMPLES Example 1 Synthesis of Germanium Chalcogenides

Preparation of Room Temperature Ionic Liquid (RTIL)

A RTIL was synthesized by the reaction of an equimolar mixture ofN-methyl-N-propylpiperidinium (PP13) cation andbis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (TFSI) anion. The PP13 bromide wasprepared by first mixing propylbromide with N-methylpiperidine in a 1:1molar ratio in acetonitrile and stirred at 70° C. for 24 hours. Whiteprecipitate crystallized out in the solvent. The precipitate was washedin acetonitrile to remove unreacted reagents and dried under vacuum. TheRTIL was prepared by the reaction of PP13-Br and LiTFSI in a 1:1 molarratio in aqueous solution stirred at room temperature for 12 hours. Anorganic phase separates out of the uniform aqueous reaction mixture. Theorganic phase was extracted with CH₂Cl₂. The extract was washed thricewith DI water (18 MΩ cm) and the final organic extract was dried in avacuum at 10° C. for 24 hours. The vacuum dried, thick, viscous, andcolorless liquid was stored in a glove box for further electrochemicalreactions.

Synthesis of GeS_(x) Films

GeS_(x) films were deposited from a 0.3M GeCl₄ and 0.3M1,4-butanedithiol mixture in RTIL using a three electrode cell assembly.Glassy carbon (GC) or indium coated tin oxide (ITO) glass sheets wereused as working electrodes, Pt or graphite as counter electrodes, and Agwire as a quasi-reference electrode (QRE). The films were depositedpotentiodynamically between 0 to −3 V. To vary the thickness of the filmchronopotentiometry was utilized at −2.7V vs. Ag wire QRE at differenttime intervals. The synthesized GeS_(x) films were washed with acetoneand stored in a desiccator.

Ag Doping of GeS_(x) Films:

Ag doping of the synthesized GeS_(x) films was performed using anaqueous electrolyte solution containing 1 mM AgNO₃ in 0.2M H₂SO₄ in athree electrode cell. The potentiodynamic experiments were performedbetween 0.6 to −1.2V versus a Pt wire QRE, a platinum counter electrodeand the GeS_(x) film on either ITO or glassy carbon as the workingelectrode. To study different levels of Ag doping, a constant potentialdeposition was performed at −0.4V versus a Pt wire QRE.

Materials Characterization

Synthesized GeS_(x) and Ag doped GeS_(x) were characterized by differentanalytical techniques.

Raman spectroscopy was used to determine the stretching vibrationalmodes of GeS_(x) and Ag doped GeS_(x). Raman analyses were performedwith a Renishaw In Via microscope system utilizing 514.5 nm incidentradiation. A 50× aperture was used, resulting in an approximately 2 μmdiameter sampling cross section.

X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) was used to analyze the chemicalenvironment of elements present in GeS_(x) and Ag doped GeS_(x). XPS wascarried out with a Kratos AXIS Ultra DLD system calibrated using thesignals for Au 4f_(7/2) at 83.98 eV.

X-ray diffraction was used to find the crystallinity and composition ofthe films. A Rigaku R-Axis Spider X-ray diffractometer was used with aCu-Ka (λ=1.542 Å) source. The measurements were carried out under 40 kVand 40 mA by loading the sample in a 0.5 mm Nylon loop. The samples werescanned for 30 minutes with a rotation of 2° per minute. The dataobtained were processed with 2DP software in the 2θ range of 10-90°.

Time resolved UV-Vis was carried out to study Ag doping in the GeS_(x)films. An Agilent 8453 UV-visible spectrophotometer (AgilentTechnologies) was used for absorption measurements during Ag doping ofthe GeS_(x) films. All electrochemical studies were conducted at roomtemperature (23 (±2° C.) and were performed with a CH Instruments 700Apotentiostat interfaced to a PC.

Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was performed on the synthesizedfilms with a Hitachi S-5500 high-resolution scanning tunnelingmicroscope (STEM) operating at 30.00 kV. A Small portion of the film wasremoved from the substrate and dispersed in ethanol. This suspension wasdropped in to the Cu TEM grid covered with a thin amorphous carbon film(Ted Pella) for the SEM analysis.

FIG. 1A shows the potentiodynamic deposition of Ge films over glassycarbon (GC) electrode. GeS_(x) deposition was carried out using apotentiodynamic deposition method with a potential window of 0 to −3Vvs. Ag (QRE). From the cyclic voltammogram, two anodic peaks are seen at−1.3V and −2.25V vs. Ag QRE. The peaks corresponded to the reduction ofGe(VI) to Ge(II) and reduction of Ge(II) to Ge(0), respectively. Gefilms can be deposited in different conducting substrates such as glassycarbon, stainless steel, indium tin oxide (ITO) and Cu backed Si waferby using RTIL containing 0.3M GeCl₄. However, the reduction potential ofGe may vary with substrate used. See FIG. 2. Deposition of GeS_(x) overdifferent electrode substrates resulted in appreciable difference inquality of the films. The overall qualities of the films are better inglassy carbon compared to stainless steel and Si.

FIG. 1B shows the potentiodynamic deposition of GeS_(x) onto GC. Duringthe deposition an anodic peak was observed at approximately −1.8V versusan Ag QRE on a GC substrate. The peak may be attributed to thecomplexation of sulfur and germanium sources with ionic liquid. Once itformed the complex with the reactants, it proceeded through an inducedco-deposition process. It was also noticed that in preparing the GeS_(x)films, a solid white precipitate formed in the electrolyte solution.

In order to understand the mechanism of GeS_(x) formation,chronopotentiometric experiments were performed at different potentials,see FIG. 1C, for 600 seconds. This experiment demonstrated that thedepositions may be stable after 100 seconds at all the potentials.However, at the potential −2.7 V vs Ag (QRE), a different behavior withstep formations was observed. Three step formations at −2.7V wereobserved, which was further confirmed by the Cottrell plot, see FIG. 1D.This may be the initial step of complexation of Ge and sulfur precursorswith ionic liquid. The deposition rate of thin film of 2D character mayincrease in time once the 2D layer is finished. Crystal growth followedon the top of pre deposited surface by the Stranski-Krastanov nucleationand growth mechanism.

Analysis of the films by SEM-EDS showed a porous character withparticles on top of the film, see FIG. 3. FIG. 3A shows the large areacoverage with smooth and porous structure. The smooth surface containssmall particles, as shown in FIG. 3B. These particles were confirmed tobe GeS_(x) by EDS elemental mapping analysis, as shown in FIGS. 3C and3D. The presence of small spherical particles over the surface furthersupported that the Stranski-Krastanov Mechanism of electrodepositiontook place. Silver doping of GeS films was performed by an Ag strippingexperiment in aqueous 1 mM AgNO₃ in 0.2M H₂SO₄. To find the viability ofthis method, spectroelectrochemical experiments were performed with ITOand GeS_(x)/ITO as the working electrode. From the experiment it wasdetermined that Ag deposited at −0.4V versus Pt QRE. Thereby, a constantpotential deposition of Ag was carried out on the GeS films at −0.4V vs.Pt QRE for 600 seconds.

Ge and GeS showed very strong Raman cross sectional area at 300 cm⁻¹ and347 cm⁻¹ respectively. FIG. 4 shows the Raman spectrum ofelectrodeposited Ge and GeS films on GC. Electrodeposited Ge filmsshowed a large peak at 280 cm⁻¹, which was attributed to the amorphousnature which is consistent with prior data. This peak was absent in theGeS films and prominent peaks present at, 342.7, 367, 405, 437, and 457cm⁻¹. The peak at 347.2 cm⁻¹ may likely stretching from GeS₄ tetrahedraand the peak at 367 cm may likely be related to GeS₄ tetrahedra; 375 and374 cm⁻¹ respectively for GeS₄ tetrahedra. The 405, 437 and 457 cm⁻¹peaks were likely due to various S—S stretching. Comparison of Ag dopedversus undoped films showed a large peak around 278 cm⁻¹ present in thespectrum for Ag doped films that is not present in undoped. This ispossibly caused by ethane like GeS structures. This change was notpresent in the undoped films giving strong evidence that Ag wassuccessfully doped into the films. Examination of the white precipitatethat formed in the GeCl₄/1,4-butanedithiol solution by Raman showed thatit was GeS_(x), as shown in FIG. 5. XRD analysis of the Ag doped andundoped GeS films showed amorphous character, as shown in FIG. 6.

XPS analysis provided further evidence for the synthesis of GeS and Agdoping the films. XPS analysis of Ge, as shown in FIG. 7A, in theundoped films shows correlation to GeS species at approximately 30 eV.After doping with Ag, the Ge peak split and reduced in intensity withtwo peaks at about 26.7 eV and 31.7 eV. Prior work has shown that afterAg doping the peak splits. Examination of the sulfur in the undopedfilms gave a spectra consistent with sulfur in GeS species as well, witha peak at around 161 eV, as shown in FIG. 7B. This peak reduced inintensity and shifted to greater binding energy after doping with Ag toabout 162.8 eV. The observation of such sifts in the GeS and Ag dopedGeS films gave strong support to the notion that Ag was successfullydoped into the films. The XPS results for the Ag in the doped films gaveexcellent correspondence to values with peaks at about 368 and 374 eVcorresponds to 3d_(5/2) and 3d_(3/2) orbital splitting respectively, asshown in FIG. 7C. Examination through peak integration showed an atomicconcentration of 39.39% Ge and 60.61% S for an undoped film revels thatthe composition of GeS_(x) film is GeS_(1.54). For the Ag doped filmsshow atomic concentration of 28.77% Ge, 39.83% S, and 31.45% confirmsthat Ag is possible by this method, as shown in FIG. 7D. The maximumamount of Ag that can be doped on GeS₂ using other methods may only beabout 35%.

Initial cyclic voltammetry experiments were carried out in an aqueoussolution of 1 mM AgNO₃ in 0.2M H₂SO₄ between 0.6 to −1.2V versus Pt QREand a Pt counter electrode and ITO as the working electrode, as shown inFIG. 8A. Absorbance as a function of time as the deposition took placewas taken for several wavelengths. From this data it was determined thatAg deposited at −0.4V versus Pt QRE. A constant potential deposition ofAg was carried out on the GeS_(x) films on ITO or plain ITO at −0.4V vs.Pt QRE for various periods of time, as shown in FIGS. 8B and 8C. Theabsorbance of the bare ITO increased across all frequencies as thedeposition proceeded, indicating that an opaque film was being produced;examination of the slide after the experiment confirmed this. Theabsorbance of the GeS_(x) films decreased as the time of deposition wenton. This indicates that an Ag film was not produced but that silverclusters are being doped into the structure of the GeS_(x) films.

Example 2 Synthesis of Molybdenum Chalcogenides

Preparation of Molybdenum Precursor

Molybdenum glycolate was prepared by reacting 1.5 g MoO₃ with 250 mLethylene glycol at 194° C. for 1 hr under a nitrogen atmosphere. Browncolor viscous final product was extracted after the reaction.

Synthesis of MoS_(x) Films

MoS_(x) films were deposited from a 1004 C₂H₃MoO₃ and 100 μL (0.85 mmol)1,4-butanedithiol mixture in RTIL using a three electrode cell assembly.Glassy carbon (GC) or indium coated tin oxide (ITO) glass sheets wereused as working electrodes, Pt or graphite as counter electrodes, and Ptwire as a quasi-reference electrode (QRE). The films were depositedpotentio-dynamically between 0 to −2.7 V. To vary the thickness of thefilm the numbers of cycles have been varied and chronopotentiometry wasutilized at −2.7V vs. Pt wire QRE at different time intervals. Thesynthesized MoS_(x) films were washed with acetone and stored in adesiccator.

Materials Characterization

Synthesized MoS_(x) was characterized by different analyticaltechniques. Raman spectroscopy was used to determine the stretchingvibrational modes of MoS_(x).

Raman analyses were performed with a Renishaw In Via microscope systemutilizing 514.5 nm incident radiation. A 50× aperture was used,resulting in an approximately 2 μm diameter sampling cross section. Thespectral samples were collected over 20 second exposure time.

X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) was used to analyze the chemicalenvironment of elements present in MoS_(x). XPS was carried out with aKratos AXIS Ultra DLD system calibrated using the signals for Au4f_(7/2) at 83.98 eV.

Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was performed with a Quanta 650operated at 30.00 kV. Electrodeposited MoSx films over GC (1 cm×1 cm)were mounted on the Al stub with double sided carbon tape (Ted Pella)for the SEM analysis.

XPS analysis provided further evidence for the synthesis of MoS_(x). XPSanalysis of Mo, as shown in FIG. 9A shows correlation to the Mo 3d₅₁₂peak at 228.5 ev on the deposited thin film using a 1:1 Mo:S precursorratio. The 228.5 eV value corresponds to Mo in the fourth oxidationstate. Examination of the sulfur gave spectra consistent with sulfur inMoS_(x) species as well, with a peak at around 162.5 eV corresponds to2p_(1/2) as shown in FIG. 9B. Examination through peak integrationshowed an atomic concentration of 33.49% Mo and 66.51% S reveals thatthe composition of MoS_(x) film is MoS₂.

FIG. 10 shows the Raman spectrum of electrodeposited MoS_(x) films onGC. Electrodeposited Mo films showed two sharp Raman modes, E_(2g) ¹(375 cm⁻¹) and A_(1g) (401 cm⁻¹). Weak second-order scattering process2−LA(M) mode was seen near 452 cm⁻¹. These results suggest formation ofa few layers of MoS₂.

FIG. 11 shows the potentiodynamic deposition of MoS₂ films over glassycarbon (GC) electrode. Analysis of the films by SEM-EDS showed a porouscharacter with particles on top of the film, see FIG. 11C. Theseparticles were confirmed to be MoS_(x) by EDS elemental mappinganalysis, as shown in FIG. 12. The presence of small spherical particlesover the surface further supported that the Stranski-Krastanov Mechanismof electrodeposition took place.

FIG. 13 shows the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) activity of MoS₂films. A high HER activity with Tafel slope of 151.1 mV/decade wasobserved with layer dependent activity of MoS₂ films.

Therefore, the present invention is well adapted to attain the ends andadvantages mentioned as well as those that are inherent therein. Whilenumerous changes may be made by those skilled in the art, such changesare encompassed within the spirit of this invention as illustrated, inpart, by the appended claims.

What is claimed is:
 1. A method for fabricating a chalcogenide glass orfilm comprising: providing a solution comprising a room temperatureionic liquid, a metal precursor, and a chalcogenide precursor; providinga substrate; and applying the solution onto the substrate by adeposition process.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the roomtemperature ionic liquid comprises an organic cation and an anion. 3.The method of claim 2, wherein the organic cation comprises at least onecation selected from the group consisting of:1-alkyl-3-methylimidazolium; 1-alkylpyridinium;N-methyl-N-alkylpyrrolidinium; and an ammonium ion.
 4. The method ofclaim 2, wherein the anion comprises at least one anion selected fromthe group consisting of: a halide; tetrafluoroborate;hexafluorophosphate; bistriflimide; triflate; tosylate, formate;alkylsulfate, alkylphosphate, and glycolate.
 5. The method of claim 1,wherein the room temperature ionic liquid comprises anN-methyl-N-propylpiperidinium cation and abis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide anion.
 6. The method of claim 1,wherein the metal precursor comprises a transition metal precursor. 7.The method of claim 1, wherein the metal precursor comprises at leastone metal precursor selected from the group consisting of: a germaniumprecursor; a tungsten precursor; a niobium precursor; a cadmiumprecursor; and a molybdenum precursor.
 8. The method of claim 1, whereinthe metal precursor is present in the solution at a concentration in therange of from about 0.01M to about 1M.
 9. The method of claim 1, whereinthe chalcogenide precursor comprises a chalcogenide precursor selectedfrom the group consisting of: benzene-1,2-dithiol; benzene-1,3-dithiol,biphenyl-4,4′-dithiol; p-terphenyl-4,4″-dithiol; toluene-3,4-dithiol;1,3-butanedithiol; 1,4-butanedithiol; 2,3-butanedithiol;1,4-butanedithiol diacetate; 1,16-hexadecanedithiol;1,4-benzenedimethanethiol; 1,2-ethanedithiol; 1,3-propanedithiol;1,5-pentanedithiol; 1,6-hexandithiol; 1,8-octanedithiol;1,8-octanedithiol diacetate; 1,9-nonanedithiol; a selenium halide; adiselenium dihalide; a diselenol; a phenylselenol; selenourea; anddiselenide.
 10. The method of claim 1, wherein the chalcogenideprecursor is present in the solution at a concentration in the range offrom about 0.01M to about 1M.
 11. The method of claim 1, wherein thesubstrate comprises at least one substrate selected from the groupconsisting of: an electrode; a silicon nitride substrate, a molybdenumsubstrate; a tungsten substrate; graphite; graphene; glassy carbon;pyrolized photoresist carbon film; indium doped tin oxide; a glasssheet, a stainless steel sheet, and a silicon wafer.
 12. The method ofclaim 1, wherein the deposition process comprises: providing a cellassembly comprising an electrode; containing the solution within thecell assembly; submerging the substrate in the solution; and applyingcurrent to the electrode to deposit chalcogenide glass or film on thesubstrate.
 13. The method of claim 12, wherein the cell assemblycomprises a three electrode cell assembly.
 14. The method of claim 1,wherein the deposition process is performed at a temperature in therange of from about 20° C. to 150° C.
 15. A method for fabricating agermanium glass or film comprising: providing a solution comprising aroom temperature ionic liquid, a germanium precursor, and a chalcogenideprecursor; providing a substrate; and applying the solution onto thesubstrate by a deposition process.
 16. The method of claim 15, whereinthe room temperature ionic liquid comprises PP₁₃-TFSI, the germaniumprecursor comprises GeCl₄, and the chalcogenide precursor comprises1,4-butanedithiol.
 17. The method of claim 15, wherein the depositionprocess is performed at a temperature in the range of from about 20° C.to 150° C.
 18. A method for fabricating a molybdenum chalcogenide glassor film comprising: providing a solution comprising a room temperatureionic liquid, molybdenum glycolate, and 1,4-butanedithiol; providing asubstrate; and applying the solution onto the substrate by a depositionprocess.
 19. The method of claim 18, wherein the room temperature ionicliquid comprises PP₁₃-TFSI, the molybdenum precursor comprisesmolybdenum glycolate, and the chalcogenide precursor comprises1,4-butanedithiol.
 20. The method of claim 18, wherein the depositionprocess is performed at a temperature in the range of from about 20° C.to about 150° C.